Npua hlau ntau lawm hauv Russia, keeb kwm kev loj hlob

2024 Tus sau: Howard Calhoun | [email protected]. Kawg hloov kho: 2024-01-02 13:55

Tau ntau pua xyoo, Lavxias Federation tau ua tus thawj coj hauv ntiaj teb hauv kev tsim cov npua hlau. Cov hlau no yog siv rau ntau yam kev lag luam, yog siv los tsim cov khoom siv kos duab thiab cov khoom zoo nkauj. Cov kws tshaj lij hais tias: cam khwb cia hlau yog ib feem tseem ceeb ntawm tib neeg lub neej, nws yog deservedly suav hais tias yog ib qho ntawm cov khoom siv tshaj plaws. Niaj hnub no peb xav tham txog ferrous metallurgy, kev tsim cov hlau thiab hlau, lawv cuam tshuam rau tib neeg. Cia peb tig mus rau keeb kwm ntawm kev txhim kho ntawm kev lag luam foundry feem ntau: keeb kwm tseeb thiab cov ntaub ntawv nthuav dav tos koj!

History: Copper Age

cam khwb cia hlau yog hlau nrog ntau txhiab xyoo keeb kwm, nws cov hauv paus hniav rov qab mus rau BC. Feem ntau, cov keeb kwm hnub tim thawj cov pov thawj ntawm kev tshwm sim ntawm metallurgy mus rau 6th-5th txhiab xyoo BC. Tom qab ntawd ib tug neeg tseem siv pob zeb los tsim cov cuab yeej, tab sis nws twb tuaj hla tooj liab nuggets. Noj nuggets rau pob zeb zoo tib yam thiab ua lawv tib txoj kev uas tau siv rau txhua lub pob zeb - tsuas yog sib tsoo - ib tug neeg to taub: cov pob zeb no tsis tawg, tab sis tsuas yog deform, thiab yog li ntawd lawv.tuaj yeem molded rau hauv yuav luag txhua yam duab. Cov keeb kwm yav dhau los yuav hu rau txoj kev no txias forging. Yog li tooj liab tau los ua ib qho kev hloov rau pob zeb, ua rau ntses nuv ntses, spearheads thiab daggers tau yooj yim dua, ntxiv rau, qhov zoo ntawm cov khoom lag luam zoo tshaj qhov zoo ntawm cov analogues ua los ntawm pob zeb thiab pob txha. Nyob rau tib lub sijhawm, kev ua ntoo tau txhim kho, nws tau los ua cov khoom me me. Los ntawm txoj kev, cov kws tshawb fawb tau ua pov thawj tias nyob rau hauv cov cheeb tsam uas cov tooj liab tau nquag siv, cov tsos ntawm lub log tau tshwm sim ntau dhau los. Qhov no ua pov thawj qhov tseeb tias txoj kev loj hlob ntawm noob neej yog inextricably txuas nrog kev loj hlob ntawm metallurgy.

Hnub Nyoog Kawg

Thaum tib neeg kawm paub tsim bronze - ib qho hlau uas muaj tooj liab thiab tin, tib neeg tau nkag mus rau Hnub Nyoog Bronze. Niaj hnub no, historians tsis tuaj yeem teb cov lus nug ntawm yuav ua li cas raws nraim ib tug neeg invented xws li ib tug alloy. Cov kws tshawb fawb feem ntau ntseeg tias qhov no tshwm sim los ntawm lub caij nyoog ntshiab, thaum tin tau nkag mus rau hauv lub thawv nrog cov tooj liab molten. Qhov tseeb tseem yog ib txhiab xyoo neeg tau tawm tsam nrog rab ntaj tooj liab thiab ua rau hauv cov lauj kaub tooj liab.

Iron Age

Keeb kwm hais tias: nws yooj yim dua kom tau hlau dua tooj liab lossis tin. Qhov khoom yog tias nws muaj nyob rau hauv daim ntawv ntawm oxide thiab oxide nyob txhua qhov chaw. Yog li vim li cas tib neeg tsis pib siv hlau sai dua? Cov lus teb yog qhov yooj yim: kev tsim cov hlau no yog cov txheej txheem tsis txaus ntseeg thiab siv sijhawm, ua qhov chaw hauv ntau theem. Nws siv ntau tshaj ib puas xyoo ntawm kev loj hlob los kawm txog cov txheej txheem no. Yog vim li casNws tsis yog qhov xav tsis thoob tias cov neeg hlau metallurgists ntawm lub sijhawm ntawd raug suav hais tias yog cov neeg ua khawv koob tiag tiag, hlawv tej yam yees siv.

Thawj hais txog cam khwb cia hlau

Lub teb chaws uas pib tsim hlau yog hnub no suav tias yog Tuam Tshoj. Cov keeb kwm hais tias qhov no tshwm sim nyob ib ncig ntawm lub xyoo pua tsib BC. Nyob rau hauv lub Celestial faj tim teb chaws, npib, khoom siv hauv tsev thiab ntau yam riam phom ua los ntawm cam khwb cia hlau tau nrov heev. Ntau cov cam khwb cia hlau tau muaj sia nyob rau peb lub sijhawm, piv txwv li, ib tug zoo kawg nkaus cam khwb cia hlau tsov ntxhuav, uas yog 6 meters siab thiab 5 meters. ntawm thawj Suav metallurgists.

Qhov tseeb: thoob ntiaj teb, qhov pib ntawm kev tsim cov hlau nplaum yog suav tias yog xyoo pua 19th AD, txawm hais tias nws paub tseeb tias nyob rau hauv Tuam Tshoj rab ntaj tau tsim los ntawm nws txawm ua ntej yug ntawm Tswv Yexus!

Lub hauv paus ntawm kev tsim khoom hauv tebchaws Russia

Thaum twg hlau tsim tau pib hauv Russia? Archaeological excavations nqa tawm nyob rau hauv ib ncig ntawm lub nroog loj ntawm lub Golden Horde ua pov thawj tias qhov tshwm sim thiab kev loj hlob ntawm no ntau lawm nyob rau hauv Russia pib rov qab nyob rau hauv lub hnub ntawm lub Tatar-Mongol quab yuam! Qhov ze ntawm lub nceeg vaj ntawm Mongol rau Tuam Tshoj ua lub luag haujlwm hauv qhov no.

Xyaum nyob hauv txhua lub nroog Tatar-Mongolian nyob Rusichi, uas muaj lawv tus kheej kev cob qhia thiab khw muag khoom ntawm no. Lawv tsis tsuas yog tau txais kev paub ntawm cov tswv hauv zos, tab sis kuj qhia lawv tus kheej. Tom qab Horde poob, thev naus laus zis txuas ntxiv txhim kho thiab txhim kho. Twb nyob rau hauvNyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua 16th, nyob rau hauv Vasily lub thib peb thiab Ivan qhov txaus ntshai, zus tau tej cov hlau foundry tau pib nquag siv nyob rau hauv artillery, feem ntau cannonballs thiab me me cannons tau ua los ntawm nws. Nyob rau tib lub sijhawm, cov kws sau keeb kwm hais tias, cam khwb cia hlau kuj tau siv los ua lub tswb nrov. Kev tsim khoom tseem ceeb tau tshwm sim hauv nroog xws li Moscow thiab Tula. Nws yog ib nqi sau cia hais tias kom txog rau thaum lub xyoo pua 17th, cov teb chaws Europe tsis paub xws li technologies, thiab yog li ntawd Lavxias teb sab factories yuav nquag xa tawm ntau yam cuab yeej thiab cores ua los ntawm cam khwb cia hlau rau cov teb chaws Europe.

Kev txhim kho

Thaum lub sijhawm Petrine era, kev txhim kho nquag ntawm kev tsim cov hlau thiab hlau pib. Tus tsar nkag siab tias kev nce hauv metallurgical muaj peev xwm yuav ua rau Russia mus rau txoj kev loj hlob. Txhawm rau siv cov phiaj xwm zoo kawg, Peter kuv muaj txhua yam tsim nyog: ob qho tib si cov ntaub ntawv thiab cov thev naus laus zis. Nws yog nyob rau hauv tus huab tais no active kev tsim kho ntawm factories pib nyob rau hauv Siberia, nyob rau hauv lub Urals. Thaum lub sij hawm tag nrho lub reign ntawm Peter lub Great, zus tau tej cov hlau thiab hlau tau nce los ntawm 770 lub sij hawm, 16 loj metallurgical nroj tsuag tshwm nyob rau hauv Russia. Kev loj hlob txuas ntxiv tom qab kev tuag ntawm tus huab tais, thaum kawg ntawm lub xyoo pua 18th muaj ntau tshaj li ib puas factories nyob rau thaj tsam ntawm Lavxias teb sab faj tim teb chaws, lub teb chaws los ua ib tug ntiaj teb no tus thawj coj nyob rau hauv daim teb no. Nrog rau kev txhim kho ntawm kev lag luam, cov ntawv thov hlau kev lag luam kuj tsim. Tam sim no tsis tau tsuas yog riam phom ua los ntawm cam khwb cia hlau, tab sis kuj tais diav, monuments, rooj vag thiab laj kab.

Nws tsim nyog sau cia tias cov tshuab hluav taws xob hauv tsev siv rau cov hlau tsim tau raug lees paub tias yog qhov zoo tshaj plaws hauv ntiaj teb. Lawv tau tus cwj pwm los ntawm qhov ua tau zoo tshaj plaws txawm tias tus nqi tsawg. Hauv XIXnyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua, foundries raug cais los ntawm blast furnaces, uas ua rau nws ua tau tsis tau tsuas yog rau tshwj xeeb cov txheej txheem, tab sis kuj rau mechanize nws. Nws yog lub sij hawm no uas cov yeeb nkab foundries thiab rhiav ua malleable hlau castings tshwm.

Russia yog tus thawj coj hauv ntiaj teb

Nyob rau xyoo pua 20th, Russia tsis qeeb thiab tseem ua tus thawj coj hauv kev ua hlau. Nyob rau hauv lub USSR, qhov ntim ntawm cam khwb cia hlau suav txog li 75% ntawm tag nrho cov nyiaj ntawm cov hlau casting, nws yog tus naj npawb ntawm cov khoom siv raw, nws cov neeg siv khoom tseem ceeb yog kev lag luam thiab kev ua liaj ua teb. Nws yog los ntawm cam khwb cia hlau uas cov kws tshwj xeeb ua qhov chaw thiab ntau yam khoom siv rau cov khoom siv. Nws yuav tsum raug sau tseg tias txawm tias niaj hnub no Russia tseem tuav txoj haujlwm tseem ceeb ntawm kev tsim khoom thiab siv cov cam khwb cia hlau. Nws yog siv los ua tsis tau tsuas yog cov khoom loj, tab sis kuj ua haujlwm zoo xws li cov khoom siv rooj vag, cov hniav nyiaj hniav kub, qhov cub casting thiab khoom plig!

Hlau ntau lawm: khoom tsim nyog

Cia pib nrog lub ntsiab lus. Cam khwb cia hlau feem ntau hu ua alloy hlau nrog carbon, thiab carbon no yuav tsum yog tsawg kawg yog 2%. Yog li dab tsi yog txheej txheem ntawm kev tsim hlau? Ua ntej tshaj plaws, qhov no yuav tsum muaj qhov cub tawg loj heev. Nws qhov ntev yog amazing: qhov siab ntawm lub cub tawg yog 30 m, thiab sab hauv txoj kab uas hla yog 12 m. Qhov dav ntawm lub cub tawg yog hu ua steaming, qis dua, los ntawm cov cua kub nkag mus rau hauv lub cub tawg, yog lub hearth. Upper yog ib tug ncej. Los ntawm txoj kev, nyob rau sab sauv muaj ib tug tshwj xeeb lub qhov - lub sab saum toj, uas yog kaw nrog ib tug tshwj xeeb shutter. Lub hauv paus ntsiab lus ntawm kev ua haujlwm ntawm lub qhov cub tawg yog qhov sib txawv: los ntawm hauv qab mus rau nwscua yog muab, thiab cov ntaub ntawv yog muab los ntawm saum toj no. Cov ntaub ntawv xav tau los ua hlau muaj xws li flux (tsis muaj slag tuaj yeem tsim yam tsis muaj nws), coke (tsim nyog rau cov dej kub, yaj thiab txo nws) thiab ore (uas yog cov khoom siv tseem ceeb).

Rau ntau lawm koj tseem yuav xav tau:

• carts;
• tsheb thauj mus los;
• bunkers;
• special faucet, thiab lwm yam.

Raw khoom

Kev taw qhia txog cov alloys, kev tsim cov hlau thiab hlau pib hauv tsev kawm ntawv - cov ncauj lus no tau muab rau hauv kev ua haujlwm hauv chemistry. Cov phau ntawv kawm tham txog cov muaj pes tsawg leeg ntawm hlau ore: nws yog ore tshuaj nws tus kheej, uas yog, hlau carbonates, silicates thiab oxides, thiab pov tseg pob zeb, muaj xws li dolomite, sandstone, limestone thiab quartzite. Nws yuav tsum tau muab sau tseg tias ntau npaum li cas ntawm ore tshuaj tej zaum yuav muaj nyob rau hauv txawv ore. Nws yog los ntawm qhov kev ntsuas no uas cov ore muab faib ua cov neeg pluag thiab nplua nuj. Thawj yog xa mus rau kev txhawb nqa, thiab qhov thib ob tuaj yeem siv tam sim hauv kev tsim khoom.

Yuav kom tsim tau ib tuj ntawm npua hlau, koj yuav xav tau: peb tons ntawm ore, ib tuj coke, nees nkaum tons dej. Tus nqi ntawm flux nyob ntawm seb hom ore.

Ntau yam hlau ore

Ua ntej peb mus rau txheej txheem ntawm kev tsim cov hlau, peb muab cov ntaub ntawv hais txog hom hlau ore. Nws tuaj yeem yog:

1. Brown iron ore. Nws yog tus cwj pwm los ntawm cov ntsiab lus ntawm 25-50% hlau nyob rau hauv daim ntawv ntawm thiaj li hu ua aqueous oxides. Pob zeb khib nyiab yog clayey.
2. Hematite(nws tseem hu ua liab hlau ore). Qhov no yog ib qho anhydrous oxide, cov ntsiab lus ntawm teeb meem impurities yog tsawg ntawm no. Hlau ntawm no yog 45-55%.
3. Magnetic hlau ore. Cov ntsiab lus hlau ntawm no yog li 30-37%. Cov pob zeb pov tseg yog silica loj.
4. Siderite (nws lub npe thib ob yog spar hlau ore) yog yooj yim heev oxidized, tig mus rau xim av limestone.

Tsev tsim khoom

Kev siv tshuab hlau tsim muaj ntau theem. Nws tag nrho pib nrog kev npaj ntawm cov ore: nws yog txheeb los ntawm cov tshuaj muaj pes tsawg leeg thiab, ntawm chav kawm, los ntawm qhov loj me. Cov ntaub ntawv loj yog crushed, thiab cov khoom me me los yog ore plua plav yog agglomerated. Nyob rau tib theem, cov txiaj ntsig ntawm cov nplua nuj tsis zoo kuj tshwm sim. Tsis tas li ntawd, thaum lub sij hawm kev npaj, ib feem tseem ceeb ntawm cov pob zeb pov tseg raug tshem tawm, feem, cov ntsiab lus hlau nce. Cov theem tom ntej ntawm kev tsim hlau hlau yog kev npaj roj. Nws tag nrho pib nrog coke. Thaum lub sij hawm no, cov coke raug tshuaj xyuas - tag nrho cov kev nplua tsis tsim nyog raug tshem tawm ntawm nws, uas tuaj yeem ua rau roj poob. Cov theem tom ntej ntawm blast-kuav hlau ntau lawm yog kev npaj ntawm fluxes. Pluses yog crushed, ib tug trifle yog sifted tawm ntawm nws. Tom qab qhov txheej txheem no, tag nrho cov ntaub ntawv raug thauj mus rau hauv qhov cub. Tom qab ntawd lub tshuab ziab khaub ncaws ntawm npua hlau pib ncaj qha: lub cub tawg yog ntim nrog coke, ntxiv rau agglomerator (qhov no yog lub npe ntawm cov ore sintered nrog flux), thiab coke ntxiv dua.

Qhov kub uas yuav tsum tau ua rau smelting yog tswj los ntawm tshuab cua sov. Nyob rau hauv cov txheej txheem combustioncoke nyob rau hauv lub hearth tsim carbon dioxide. CO_{2 hla dhau los ua CO. Tsis tas li ntawd, carbon monoxide restores lub ntsiab ntawm cov ore. Nyob rau hauv cov txheej txheem no, cov hlau ua khoom, dhau mus rau qhov chaw ntawm lub cub tawg, cov cua kub heev. Ntawm no cov hlau dissolves cov carbon nyob rau hauv nws tus kheej. Qhov tseeb, qhov no yog li cas hlau ntau lawm hauv qhov cub tawg zoo li. Cov kua hlau los ntawm lub cub tawg poob rau hauv cov ladles tshwj xeeb, los ntawm qhov uas nws yog poured rau hauv pre-npaj pwm. Nws muaj peev xwm ncuav mus rau hauv tshwj xeeb collections-sib tov, nyob rau hauv uas lub alloy yuav nyob twj ywm nyob rau hauv kua daim ntawv rau tej lub sij hawm. Ib txhij nrog blast-qhov cub npua hlau ntau lawm, silicon, manganese thiab ib tug xov tooj ntawm lwm yam impurities raug txo.}

Ntau yam cam khwb cia hlau

Tsuas muaj ob hom cam khwb cia: dawb thiab grey. Qhov sib txawv ntawm lawv yog nyob rau hauv cov tshuaj muaj pes tsawg leeg thiab cov txheej txheem kev kho cua sov. Yog li, dawb cam khwb cia hlau yog qhov tshwm sim ntawm qhov txias ceev heev, thaum grey cam khwb cia hlau tau txais los ntawm kev ua kom txias qeeb. Cov xim dawb muaj cov yam ntxwv zoo li fragility thiab hardness. Lawv nyuaj heev rau txiav; nyob rau hauv tus txheej txheem, pieces tawg tawm ntawm lawv. Yog li ntawd, dawb cam khwb cia hlau tsuas yog siv los ua qhov khoob rau kev tsim khoom ntawm lwm qib ntawm cam khwb cia hlau. Piv txwv li, raws li ib tug tshwm sim ntawm firing hom no, malleable cam khwb cia hlau yog tau. Thov nco ntsoov: lub npe malleable tsis muaj dab tsi cuam tshuam nrog cov txheej txheem forging. Raws li historians, nws tshwm sim vim lub fact tias horseshoes yav tas los ua los ntawm cam khwb cia hlau nrog xws li cov yam ntxwv. Hom no yog siv dav hauvengineering engineering thiab automotive kev lag luam. Lub ntsiab sib txawv ntawm grey cam khwb cia hlau yog ductility ua ke nrog siab zog. Qhov no tso cai rau lawv siv rau hauv thaj chaw xws li cov cuab yeej siv tshuab, kev ua liaj ua teb thiab kev lag luam tsheb, thiab kev siv hauv tsev.

Los ntawm txoj kev, muaj ib nrab cam khwb cia hlau. Lawv muaj cov khoom nruab nrab ntawm hom dawb thiab grey. Tsis tas li ntawd, los ntawm kev kho qhov kev siv ntawm qhov txias ntawm no alloy, nws muaj peev xwm tau txais ntau yam ntawm castings uas yuav txawv ntawm lub zog, ductility thiab lwm yam khoom. Cam khwb cia hlau nrog cov khoom tshwj xeeb suav nrog:

• tiv thaiv kev sib txhuam, siv rau kev tsim cov bushings, shafts, bearings;
• hnav-tiv taus, tsim nyog rau kev tsim cov khoom siv twj, ntau qhov chaw rau kev lag luam nitrogen, rauv casting;
• tshav kub-resistant, uas yog siv nyob rau hauv lub chaw tsim khoom ntawm lub cub tawg castings, yeeb nkab tshuab thiab roj turbine xyaw;
• tshav kub resistant, haum rau kiln fittings thiab boiler qhov chaw;
• corrosion resistant, indispensable rau kev tsim khoom ntawm ntau yam nyob rau hauv cov tshuaj thiab aviation industries, uas yog siv nyob rau hauv aggressive ib puag ncig.

yam ntxwv ntawm cam khwb cia hlau

Cov cam khwb cia zoo yog cov yam ntxwv ntawm cov hauv qab no:

• muaj peev xwm kub zoo heev;
• zoo corrosion kuj;
• nce tshav kub.

Cov no thiab lwm yam ntxwv tso cai siv cov hlau cam hauvlub neej txhua hnub, thiab hauv kev lag luam hnyav. Lavxias teb sab cam khwb cia hlau cookware yog tshwj xeeb tshaj yog nrov. Tsis tsuas yog cov lauj kaub kib thiab cov lauj kaub yog tsim los ntawm cov khoom siv no, muaj fondue, braziers, ci tais, stewpans thiab grills.

Nws tsim nyog sau cia tias cov tais diav ua los ntawm cov khoom siv no zoo sib xws rau kib pancakes, ua noj stews, cereals, thiab rau stewing pilaf. Qhov tseeb yog tias cam khwb cia hlau heats li maj mam, tab sis nws zoo kawg nkaus accumulates cua sov thiab faib nws tusyees. Cov kws tshaj lij hais tias: cov tuam txhab sib txawv tau koom nrog hauv kev tsim cov cam khwb cia hlau cookware. Tag nrho cov ntawm lawv tsim cov khoom ntawm kwv yees li tib yam zoo. Ntawm tag nrho cov kev sib txawv no, cov khoom ntawm St. Petersburg cog "Neva" sawv tawm. Nws yog cov nroj tsuag no uas yog ib qho ntawm cov tuam txhab loj tshaj plaws ntawm cam khwb cia hlau cookware hauv Lavxias Federation.